drew migrants from Great Britain to British North America. Many of these individuals financed their passage by entering into indentured servitude contracts. This arrangement meant that migrants exchanged future years of their labor for passage to North America. At the end of their contracts, the indentured servants would be discharged with a small amount of cash, skills, and sometimes land on the new continent. During the 1700s, a significant share of Europeans coming to British North America were indentured servants.
granted English courts the ability to sentence convicts for up to 14 years as indentured servants and forced emigration. Before the American colonies.
The largest population of forced migrants to North America were not criminals from Britain but 388,000 African slaves.
Parliament passed the Plantation Act to ease the colonial naturalization process and spur settlement. The Pact created a uniform naturalization system that granted new, non-Catholic colonial settlers English naturalization after seven years of residency contingent upon a religious test, a pledge of allegiance, and a statement of Christian belief to which Quakers and Jews were exempt. When declaring the oath, Quakers and Jews were not obligated to repeat the words "Upon the true faith of a Christian."
The Plantation Act lasted 30 years and defined British North America as a refuge and land of opportunity.
Between May and September of 1787, the Constitutional Convention was held in Philadelphia to address the problems of the weak central government that existed under the Articles of Confederation. The Constitutional Convention’s decision to only grant the federal government authority over naturalization meant that states regulated immigration as part of their policing powers — banishing criminals and noncitizens, denying entry to the poor, and even attempting to ban whole races. The 1787 Constitutional Convention granted the federal government authority over a uniform rule of naturalization.
The first U.S. naturalization act for "free White persons of good character" was based on the British Plantation Act. Like the British Plantation Act, the U.S. Naturalization Act had a period of residence requirement - only 2 years, an oath of allegiance, and a process of swearing before a judge. The law excluded indentured servants, non-whites, and slaves from naturalization. Despite these exclusions, the Naturalization Act of 1790 was arguably the most liberal naturalization law to date, as it created a short and uniform path to citizenship that lacked gender requirements, religious tests, skills tests, or country of origin requirements.
counted 3.9 million residents; 80.7% white; 19.3% African slaves. 69.3% could trace their origins to England, Scotland or Wales. The country was ethnically and racially heterogeneous.
increased the residency requirement for naturalization from 2 years to 5 years and added a clause requiring prospective citizens to declare their intention to naturalize 3 years before doing so. Notably, the Naturalization Act of 1795 held a religious and moral subtext that changed “good character” to “good moral character.” The 1795 Naturalization Act reflected a fear that foreign-born populations with voting rights could undermine national security.
Due to the looming war with France, Congress passed a series of bills in 1798 collectively known as the Alien and Sedition Acts that expanded the federal government’s involvement in immigration policy. Together these acts subjected aliens to the threat of national surveillance and arbitrary arrest and granted a new power to the president to deport noncitizens via decree. Notably, these acts increased the residency period for naturalization to 14 years and required that prospective citizens declare their intent to naturalize five years before doing so.
reverted the residency requirements for naturalization to 5 years.
In 1819, Congressional legislation required ship captains to provide a passenger manifest to track immigration flows for the first time. Due to the economic depression in England, legislation lowered the carrying capacity of passenger ships and increased the price of travel, reducing the number of poor immigrants who could afford passage.
4.9 million immigrants primarily Northern European due to the 1845 Irish Potato Famine and 1848 European political revolutions. Immigrants were mainly German, Irish, English, Canadian, and French. Due to varying cultures and religions, particularly German craftworkers and Irish Catholics, there was an emergence of nativist political parties. For example, the American Party also called the Know Nothings - wanted to increase the residency period for naturalization to 21 years. Nativists worried about wage competition, welfare programs, and the Catholic vs Protestant dichotomy. Nativists worried that Catholics would oppose slavery. The Second Wave increased the number of immigrants from 599,125 in the 1830s to 1,713,251 through the 1840s, a more than 300% increase.
President Abraham Lincoln contended that "our immigrants [are] one of the principal replenishing streams which are appointed by Providence to repair the ravages of internal war and its waste of national strength and wealth."
The 1862 Homestead Act - offered land grants to citizens and immigrants willing to settle and develop land for five years.
The 1864 Act to Encourage Immigration also known as the Contract Labor Act - allowed private employers to recruit foreign workers, pay their transportation costs, and contract their labor.
The Lincoln administration had a longer-term effect on American immigration policy when it appointed Anson Burlingame as the U.S. Minister to China in 1861. Burlingame negotiated the Burlingame-Seward trade treaty with China in 1868. Recognizing the "mutual advantage of the free migration and emigration of their citizens," the Burlingame-Seward Treaty ensured that Chinese citizens had the right to emigrate and enter the United States. It was a Chinese law that did not permit immigration to the U.S., the treaty required the Chinese government to allow emigration to the United States. By 1870 14.4% of the U.S. population was foreign born.
"all persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside," except for emigrants and descendants of China. The federal government held this position toward Chinese immigrants and their descendants until the Supreme Court ruled otherwise in the 1898 United States v. Wong Kim Ark decision.
Granted naturalization rights to "aliens being free white persons, and to aliens of African nativity and to persons of African descent."
Restricted the immigration of Chinese contract laborers, convicts, and Chinses women, most of whom were the wives of male workers on the grounds that they were prostitutes. These restrictions were in violation of the 1868 Burlingame-Seward Treaty and were the result of nationwide anti-Chinese sentiment.
Imposed a $0.50 federal head tax on each alien passenger to fund immigration enforcement. It also mandated that state officials identify and deny entry to "any convict, lunatic, idiot, or any person unable to take care of himself or herself without becoming a public charge."
Imposed a 10-year ban on Chinese laborers and Congress extended this ban through 1943.
Led to the Supreme Court decision that Congress had "the power to pass a law regulating immigration as a part of the commerce of this country with foreign nations" and overrode state immigration policies.
Justice Stephen Field penned the ruling opinion that recounted California’s constitutional convention, which had found that "the presence of Chinese laborers had a baneful effect upon the material interests of the state, and upon public morals; that their immigration was in numbers approaching the character of an Oriental invasion, and was a menace to our civilization." Field then reasoned that the United States had the power to "preserve its independence, and give security against foreign aggression and encroachment," such as Chinese migration. The Supreme Court's decision created a "constitutional oddity" that subsequently decreased judicial oversight of immigration law.
Expanded the list of excluded immigrants, enabled the deportation of immigrants present for less than a year if government authorities later found them excludable, and established the Office of the Superintendent of Immigration within the Treasury Department — later reformed as the Bureau of Immigration. The act also made immigration inspectors' rulings final and ended the possibility of judicial review, although the Treasury Secretary could still review them.
Many argued that immigrants impeded the achievement of an ideal society, committed crimes, and abused welfare. Others proposed that the government had a duty to protect natives from immigrants who supposedly depressed innovation and lowered native-born American wages. Scholars of the era contended that certain ethnicities possessed immutable intrinsic characteristics that would prevent assimilation into American society. To combat these perceived ills, Progressives championed mandatory literacy tests, as well as various other eugenics-inspired racial and ethnic exclusions of Jews, Asians, and Africans. The immigration of Japanese laborers was blocked via the informal 1907-08 Gentlemen's Agreement. It called for U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt to force San Francisco to repeal its Japanese-American school segregation order in exchange for Japan agreeing to deny emigration passports to Japanese laborers, while still allowing wives, children and parents of current immigrants to enter the United States.
expanded the list of excludable immigrants and excluded aliens from "due process protection hitherto provided by the Fourteenth Amendment to all 'persons' rather than 'citizens.'" In 1903, Congress also relocated the Bureau of Immigration to the Department of Commerce and Labor.
A 41 volume study composed of cherry-picked data to reach the predetermined conclusion that immigrants from Northern and Western Europe were innately superior to those from Southern and Eastern Europe. When data revealed large numbers of Northern and Western Europeans sought welfare in American cities, the Dillingham Commission returned the data "for further information or for corrections." Despite its methodological flaws, policy-makers embraced the report and its recommendations because it confirmed their prejudices.
What started as a collective of private nonprofit organizations that backed civics classes, language lessons, and the destruction of the “hyphenated American” morphed into a series of government programs that wrote school curricula to push for immigrant assimilation, including banning the German language from being spoken in public schools.
Sanctioned legal immigrants' detention and deportation if they committed a deportable crime within five years of their arrival. It also imposed literacy tests and other measures to limit immigration from Africa and Asia.
Established a cap on the number of quota admissions equal to roughly 358,000 for immigrants from the Eastern Hemisphere, exempting immediate relatives. This was the first American immigration law that substantially emphasized family-based immigration over economic immigrants. Of the total quota admissions, the bill allocated 55% to Northern and Western European countries.
Reduced the annual quota from roughly 358,000 to about 164,000 immigrants.
The law also established per-country cap allocations:
required the prescreening of immigrants at embassies and consulates abroad, the implementation of a visa system, and the deportation of illegal arrivals. To enforce the law, Congress also created the U.S. Border Patrol. Additionally, Congress allowed Immigration Bureau agents to arrest illegal border crossers without obtaining warrants, to board and search vessels, and to access private lands within 25 miles of the border. Despite these powers, an estimated 175,000 illegal entries occurred annually.
Five years before the 1924 act an average of 554,920 legal immigrants arrived each year, during the five years after the act, the average number of legal immigrants per year dropped to 304,182. By 1932 the inflow of legal immigrants had fallen to 35,576. Through the decade of 1930s, legal immigration averaged 69,938 annually. From 1924 to 1940 the number of immigrants to the United States dropped by 90%. This is through the height of the Great Depression.
A 1933 executive order merged the Bureau of Immigration and the Bureau of Naturalization into the Immigration and Naturalization Services (INS) with the Department of Labor. As the country entered the Great Depression, Secretary of Labor William N. Doak thought that deporting illegal immigrants would create jobs for natives. As a result, the federal government deported more than one million Mexicans and persons of Mexican ancestry in what was euphemistically known as "repatriation," even though approximately 60% of the deportees were U.S. citizens born in the U.S. to Mexican parents. The repatriation efforts only increased unemployment rates for native-born Americans.
Regarding the 1933 Repatriation to Mexico, a 2017 paper circulated by the non-partisan National Bureau of Economic Research states "The repatriation of Mexicans, who were mostly laborers and farm workers, reduced demand for other jobs mainly held by natives, such as skilled craftsman and managerial, administrative and sales jobs... our estimates suggest that it may have further increased their levels of unemployment and depressed their wages."
forced noncitizens to register with the federal government, provide fingerprints, and notify the government in the event of an address change. The law also made prior involvement in the Communist, Fascist, or Nazi political parties grounds for deportation.
The Department of Justice took over the INS.
Two months after the United States entered into World War II, President Franklin D. Roosevelt issued Executive Order 9066, establishing concentration and detention camps for Japanese and Germans inside the United States.
The 1920s immigration laws did not allow exceptions to the quotas for refugees. With the rise of Hitler, Congress was so indifferent to the refugee crisis that it defeated a 1939 proposal that would have facilitated the migration of 20,000 children from Nazi Germany, even though all of the children had U.S. family sponsors.
The postwar revelation of the Holocaust shamed the United States for its pre-war anti-refugee policy and generated political support for the 1948 Displaced Persons Act. The temporary 2-year act provided for the admission of 200,000 displaced persons and attempted to favor Catholic and Protestant refugees over Jewish ones by enacting preferences for agricultural workers.
Although Asians received no refugee visas, the act enabled several thousand Chinese already residing in the United States to gain legal permanent status by claiming asylum. As they were highly educated and well-connected, with strategic skills and knowledge, many Chinese immigrants were given asylum (particularly so that they would not return to communist China).
As a result of these and other provisions, the United States admitted more than a half million refugees between 1945 and 1953. Another motivating factor for liberalizing refugee flows after World War II was the realization that the United States could use refugee policy to increase its international prestige relative to that of the Soviet Union to combat Soviet propaganda. Congress made the first moves in this direction during World War II when it lifted the ban on Chinese immigrants and established a meager quota in 1943 to limit the effectiveness of Japanese propaganda.
The 1942 Bracero Program (due to an executive order called the Mexican Farm Labor Program) was similar to the temporary-worker programs of 1917 and 1922 that allowed for the entry of 50,000 to 80,000 Mexican laborers. Between 1942 and 1964, the Bracero Program facilitated roughly 4.5 million Mexican agricultural workers' legal entry.
Illegal immigration increased substantially in 1947 when the Bracero Program temporarily ended. This influx of illegal immigrants prompted the federal government to arrest 142,000 illegal workers between 1947 and 1949 before returning them to the border to grant them temporary work visas, a process that eventually morphed into a revamped Bracero Program.
The 1954 Operation Wetback removed almost a million illegal immigrants. However, the government legalized many of those apprehended. Some illegal immigrants took "a walk-around the statute" to gain a bracero worker visa — a process where they were driven down to the Mexican border by the INS or Border Patrol and made to take one step across the border and then immediately reenter the United States legally with a bracero work visa. The combination of a legal migration pathway with consequences for breaking immigration laws incentivized Mexican migrants to come legally.
In 1964, after Congress canceled the Bracero Program in response to political pressure from labor unions and labor organizers, illegal immigration jumped because Congress failed to replace it with another effective lower-skilled guest worker visa program.
In 1950, four months into the Korean War, Congress passed the McCarran Internal Security Act defended the 1924 National Origin Act's system of allocating quotas as the best way to "preserve the sociological and cultural balance of the United States," in other words preserve whiteness.
The 1952 Immigration and Nationality Act - increased the quota for Europeans from outside of Northern and Western Europe, granted the Department of State the ability to deny entry to those it thought would lower native wages, repealed the 1880s' prohibitions against contract labor, and set a minimum quota of a hundred visas for immigrants from every country. The bill promoted family reunification by continuing the exemption of children and spouses of citizens from the numerical caps. The 1952 act introduced four preference categories:
The 1952 act also created nonimmigrant visa categories that are still familiar:
The 1965 Immigration and Nationality Act ended the national quota system and replaced it entirely with a preference system for immigrants from the Eastern Hemisphere. The 1965 act created categories of immigrants that included the unmarried and married sons and daughters of U.S. citizens; siblings of U.S. citizens; spouses and unmarried sons and daughters of green card holders; members of the professions that include, architects, engineers, lawyers, physicians, surgeons, and teachers; scientists and artists of exceptional ability; skilled and unskilled workers in occupations for which labor was in short supply; and some refugees. Green cards were allotted to:
Immigration was limited to 290,000 annually - 170,000 from the Eastern Hemisphere, and 120,000 from the Western Hemisphere. The act limited immigration from any individual Eastern Hemisphere country to 20,000 annually. By 1976, this provision also applied to Western Hemisphere countries. The act extended the administrative amnesty of 1929 to those who were illegally present in 1948, legalizing about 44,106 illegal immigrants by 1981.
Demographically, the removal of racial restrictions significantly increased the number of Asian immigrants and slightly increased the number of Latinx immigrants. Geographically, Florida, California, New York, Texas, Illinois, and New Jersey received the bulk of new immigrants.
The 1980 Refugee Act came about due to waves of refugees fleeing communism from 1967 to 1980 temporarily raising the refugee limit from 17,600 to 50,000 and establishing a new category for asylum seekers. From 1980 to 2000, the federal government accepted an average of 97,000 refugees per year. Under the Refugee Act of 1980, the president sets worldwide and regional refugee numbers.
had two main components:
The bill granted roughly three million illegal immigrants amnesty and created 109 new INS offices to enforce immigration laws. IRCA boosted the number of Border Patrol agents along the southwest border to roughly 3,350 agents by 1988, but illegal immigration continued to increase.
The 1988 Anti-Drug Abuse Act created a category of offenses called aggravated felonies that subjected noncitizens to deportation after completing their prison sentence. By 2016, more than 30 types of offenses were deemed aggravated felonies, including minor crimes with a sentence of one year or more.
increased the number of green cards issued annually to 675,000; the per-country ceiling was raised to 25,620. Origin of immigrants issued green cards:
Much of the shift was due to economic development globally. Whereas Europe and Canada were wealthy regions relative to the rest of the world, developing nations were wealthy enough that their citizens could emigrate, but not yet wealthy enough to entice them to stay.
The Immigration Act of 1990 added and reformed nonimmigrant visas for skilled workers, such as the H-1B visa for skilled workers in specialty occupations and the O-1 visa for individuals with extraordinary ability or achievement.
The bill allocated 55,000 immigration visas to a Diversity Visa program that awarded visas to nationals from countries with low levels of immigration to the United States; it did so to target Ireland. In 1994 almost all diversity visa recipients were from European countries.
increased the penalties for illegal entry, created mandatory detention for many classes of noncitizens, and expedited deportation procedures for certain cases. The bills also limited judicial review of certain types of deportations and allowed secret evidence in removal proceedings for noncitizens accused of terrorist activity.
increased the interior deportation apparatus in the United States and prevented illegal immigrants from using the legal system to earn a green card through the so-called three-and-ten-year bars, which prevented illegally present immigrants who leave the United States from legally returning for any reason.
made most noncitizens ineligible for means-tested welfare, authorized the states to deny providing welfare such as Medicaid to immigrants, and delayed the possibility of receiving welfare for most immigrants for five years.
In 1997 Border Patrol agents along the southwest border doubled since 1987 to 6,315. The additional enforcement measures increased the cost of crossing the border illegally, increased undocumented immigrants' use of smugglers, inflated smugglers' fees, and decreased the incentive for undocumented immigrants to return home after successfully entering the United States.
The new century began with the prospects of increased immigration and the legalization of undocumented immigrants. For example, in 2000 Republican presidential candidate George W. Bush appealed to Latinx voters by supporting expanded legal immigration and legalization for undocumented immigrants. The original version of the DREAM Act to grant residency and work rights to undocumented immigrants who enter the United States as minors dates back to April 2001. Unfortunately, the 9/11 attacks caused a slew of protectionist laws.
Temporarily raised the annual H-1B cap and permanently exempted universities and nonprofit research institutions from the visa cap.
reduced the rights of immigrants by expanding deportation powers to suspected terrorists and allowed the attorney general to detain aliens without charge or recourse to due process.
consolidated 22 federal departments and agencies into the new Department of Homeland Security. This act moved many federal agencies that were responsible for immigration enforcement under the department's purview and restructured them as Customs and Border Protection, Immigration and Customs Enforcement, and Citizenship and Immigration Services.
expanded the budget, staffing, and powers of the immigration enforcement bureaucracy and ordered that all internal Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) databases be linked together and be fully interoperable with the then-in-development biometric-based system.
provided 20,000 additional H-1B visas to high-skilled temporary workers with advanced degrees from American universities.
authorized and partially funded the construction of 700 miles (1,125 km) of fencing along the Mexican border.
In 2012 the Obama Administration introduced the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals program (DACA), which granted a two-year work permit and a reprieve from deportation to undocumented immigrants who met many of the latest DREAM Act requirements:
President Obama continued to support comprehensive immigration reform and the targeted deportation of undocumented immigrants. Obama's administration removed more undocumented immigrants than any other administration, earning him the nickname "Deporter-in-Chief." Obama removed 1,242,486 undocumented immigrants from the interior of the United States during his full eight years, averaging 155,311 removals per year.
granted three years of temporary revocable relief and work authorization to four to five million undocumented immigrants by expanding DACA to cover the parents of U.S. citizens. The courts blocked Obama's executive action in late 2014.
From 2016 to 2020, there was little congressional action on immigration under the Trump administration, but various federal agencies utilized the regulatory state to reduce legal immigration. The Department of Justice and the Department of Homeland Security have attempted to expand immigration enforcement both in the interior of the United States and along the border. Similarly, the Citizenship and Immigration Services issued a final rule that altered the public charge grounds of inadmissibility, which could substantially reduce the number of new green cards issued.
In April 2020, at the onset of the COVID-19 Pandemic in the United States, Trump practically ended the issuance of green cards to people abroad, which usually accounts for about half of new green cards issued annually. In the last six months of the 2020 fiscal year (April to September), the federal government only issued about 29,000 green cards. During the same period in 2016, it had issued approximately 309,000 green cards.
Trump greatly reduced the issuance of nonimmigrant visas (NIVs) in response to the recession and the COVID-19 pandemic. In the last six months of the 2020 fiscal year (April to September), the federal government issued 397,596 NIVs. In the same period in 2016 during Obama's last full year in office, it issued more than 5.6 million NIVs.
Title 42 refers to a rarely used section of the U.S. Code that dates to 1944. The law empowers federal health authorities to prohibit migrants from entering the country if it is determined that doing so could prevent the spread of contagious diseases.
The CDC invoked Title 42 at the beginning of the U.S. coronavirus outbreak in March 2020, giving Border Patrol agents the authority to swiftly expel migrants trying to enter the U.S. instead of allowing them to seek asylum within the country, as had long been the policy before the pandemic. Migrants expelled from the U.S. under Title 42 are returned to their home country or most recent transit country.
Under the Refugee Act of 1980, the president sets worldwide and regional refugee numbers. Every year, Trump cut the numbers and refugee admissions fell. Trump’s control over legal immigration and the reduced number of refugee admissions exposed just how much power the Executive Branch of government has over immigration. Congress has given an enormous amount of power to the President to set immigration policy. The biggest institutional change in immigration policy is that Congress' importance is shrinking while the Executive Branch’s power is growing.
On May 11, 2023, the Biden Administration ended the use of Title 42 and returned to processing immigrants under Title 8 by which migrants may typically seek asylum in the U.S., citing a credible fear of persecution or other threats in their home country.
Immigration authorities encountered more than 152,000 unaccompanied minors at or near the U.S.-Mexico border in fiscal year 2022 (FY2022), an all-time high.
In 2023 More than 24,000 Chinese citizens have been apprehended crossing into the United States from Mexico. That is more than in the preceding 10 years combined that totaled fewer than 15,000 Chinese migrants.
"The largest reason for me is the political environment," Mark Xu, 35, a Chinese elementary and middle school English teacher, said in February, as he waited to board a boat in Necoclí, Colombia, a beach town in the north. China was so stifling, he added, it had become "difficult to breathe."
He was among about 100 Chinese migrants setting off that morning to start the journey through the treacherous Darién Gap, the only land route to the United States from South America. Mr. Xu said he learned about the trek from YouTube and through Google searches, including “how to get outside of China” and “how to escape.”
Eileen Sullivan, 24 November, 2023, Growing Numbers of Chinese Migrants Are Crossing the Southern Border, The New York Times
According to Panamanian officials over 481,000 people have crossed the Darien Gap as of November 2023, compared to 248,000 over all of 2022.
The October 2023 Census Bureau’s Current Population Survey (CPS) shows that the total foreign-born or immigrant population (legal and undocumented) was 49.5 million in October 2023 — a 4.5 million increase since President Biden took office and a new record high. At 15 percent, the foreign-born share of the U.S. population is also the highest ever recorded in American history.
The Biden administration offered humanitarian parole to tens of thousands of people fleeing from Afghanistan, Ukraine, Haiti, Venezuela, and Nicaragua. A substantial number of new arrivals had college or post-college degrees.
Immigration has a more beneficial impact on growth when the immigrant flow is composed of high-skill workers.
VERSUS
Immigrants who are judged likely to receive in the future any of an array of public benefits that are tied to need such as SNAP, Medicaid, and housing assistance are harmful to our nation and our economy.
According to the nonpartisan research institution the Center on Budget and Policy Priorities, low-skill "immigrants contribute to the U.S. economy in many ways. They work at high rates and make up more than a third of the workforce in some industries. Their geographic mobility helps local economies respond to worker shortages, smoothing out bumps that could otherwise weaken the economy. Immigrant workers help support the aging native-born population, increasing the number of workers as compared to retirees and bolstering the Social Security and Medicare trust funds. And children born to immigrant families are upwardly mobile, promising future benefits not only to their families but to the U.S. economy overall."
Arloc Sherman et al. 15 August, 2019, Immigrants Contribute Greatly to U.S. Economy, Despite Administration’s “Public Charge” Rule Rationale, Center on Budget and Policy Priorities
Many consider China the second greatest global power to the United States and some fear the influence of China across the globe, particularly in the global south. Many of the same people who fear the growing influence of China would like to see the U.S. border closed. Walls were erected along the Mexican border. However, as the Chinese economy shrinks and the Chinese population ages, an increasing number of Chinese are migrating to the United States due to draconian governance.
Today, a generous U.S. Federal Immigration Policy will grow the U.S. economy over at least two generations and will expand the population which will in turn expand social infrastructure through a larger taxable populace that will feed revenue to Social Security, national infrastructure, the economy at large and could fortify aging and depopulating rural communities. A smart U.S. Immigration Policy means conservatives and progressives collaborating to assist asylum seekers and poor immigrants in need in general. Rather than conservative leaders shipping humans to liberal cities and towns, why not work with one another to define small towns and rural communities that are quickly disappearing to present new immigrants with homes and infrastructures that need active and eager residents to reinvigorate swaths of this great nation?
Andrew Baxter, Alex Nowrasteh, 3 August, 2021A Brief History of U.S. Immigration Policy from the Colonial Period to the Present Day, Cato Institute
John Gramlich, 27 April, 2022, Key facts about Title 42, the pandemic policy that has reshaped immigration enforcement at U.S.-Mexico border, Pew Research Center
Eileen Sullivan, 24 November, 2023, Growing Numbers of Chinese Migrants Are Crossing the Southern Border, The New York Times
Borjas, George J., May 2019, Immigration and Economic Growth, National Bureau of Economic Research
Arloc Sherman et al. 15 August, 2019, Immigrants Contribute Greatly to U.S. Economy, Despite Administration’s “Public Charge” Rule RationaleCenter on Budget and Policy Priorities